The collapse of the regime of Bashar al-Assad in Syria begs the question as to why that country so lacked institutional and organized capacity that the Syrian state melted away. In neighbouring Lebanon, the state has been absent in any meaningful sense for much of the country’s independent history, while powerful sectarian interest groups dominate governance and maintain their own armed options. In Iraq, the state has collapsed twice since the US-led invasion of 2003 and is currently existing in parallel with armed sectarian militias whose political wings utilize governmental apparatus to further their narrow interests. In Yemen, there is no single state encompassing its internationally recognized boundaries, but instead there are three competing authorities ruling different parts of the country.

This book assesses why the state is failing in these four particular cases and, where relevant, examines common explanatory themes, while remaining mindful of each country’s distinct domestic and international context. Much of the material is based on research carried out in the countries themselves, involving interviews with existing or former state officials, their advisers, senior analysts, or those seeking state authority. Through this process a debate is conducted as to where power lies in each of the four cases.

This book will be invaluable for anyone seeking to understand how the state does, or rather does not, operate, in these four Middle Eastern examples, including academics, students and postgraduates, and professionals with an interest in the Middle East.